Scalable and Socially Inspired Blockchain Architecture for the Organic Food Supply Chain
Abstract views: 317
,
PDF downloads: 325
Abstract
Organic food supply chains are faced with heavy pressure to increase their output to meet the global demand. This confronts various challenges including scandals, adulteration, contamination, and growing regulations. As an alternative to third-party certification, Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS) are popular community-based quality assurance system that integrates the social verification context into the organic certification process. As PGS is a local community-driven system, it has inherent limitations in the scalability of reaching consensus as the size of participants increases. The organic food industry has the potential to grow globally therefore, an appropriate scalable consensus mechanism is needed to deal with community-level consensus as an alternative to the existing PGS system. Blockchain architecture with hybrid consensus mechanisms seems to be the potential solution to address the trust and scalability issues in the organic food supply chain. This paper proposes a socially inspired hybrid blockchain architecture for the organic food supply chain to address the scalability issues via hybridizing two consensuses’ mechanisms with the combined advantages of Proof of Authority (PoA) and Federated Byzantine Agreement (FBA). In the proposed architecture, much eminent aspect of community-level trust is integrated into the consensus process. Furthermore, this paper presents a concept-level validation as a qualitative analysis of the proposed architecture based on experts’ opinions. Concept-level validation of the proposed model acknowledged that, in the context of social verification, the credibility of the organic products would be enhanced, and hybridization of the consensuses would mitigate the scalability issues.
References
V. Seufert, N. Ramankutty, and T. Mayerhofer, “What is this thing called organic? – How organic farming is codified in regulations,” Food Policy, vol. 68, 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2016.12.009.
H. L. Tuomisto, I. D. Hodge, P. Riordan, and D. W. Macdonald, “Does organic farming reduce environmental impacts? - A meta-analysis of European research,” J Environ Manage, vol. 112, 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.08.018.
W. J. Crinnion, “Organic foods contain higher levels of certain nutrients, lower levels of pesticides, and may provide health benefits for the consumer,” Altern Med Rev, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 4–12, 2010.
R. S. Hughner, P. McDonagh, A. Prothero, C. J. Shultz, and J. Stanton, “Who are organic food consumers? A compilation and review of why people purchase organic food,” Journal of Consumer Behaviour, vol. 6, no. 2–3, pp. 94–110, Mar. 2007, doi: 10.1002/cb.210.
“TRADING OPPORTUNITIES FOR ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTS FROM DEVELOPING COUNTRIES,” in United Nations Conference on Trade and Development., Jan. 2004.
H. Montgomery, S. A. Haughey, and C. T. Elliott, “Recent food safety and fraud issues within the dairy supply chain (2015–2019),” Global Food Security, vol. 26. 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100447.
M. Janssen and U. Hamm, “Product labelling in the market for organic food: Consumer preferences and willingness-to-pay for different organic certification logos,” Food Qual Prefer, vol. 25, no. 1, 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2011.12.004.
C. Brooks, L. Parr, J. M. Smith, D. Buchanan, D. Snioch, and E. Hebishy, “A review of food fraud and food authenticity across the food supply chain, with an examination of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and Brexit on food industry,” Food Control, vol. 130, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108171.
L. Manning and A. Kowalska, “Considering fraud vulnerability associated with credence-based products such as organic food,” Foods, vol. 10, no. 8, 2021, doi: 10.3390/foods10081879.
B. Geier, “IFOAM and the History of the International Organic Movement,” in Organic Farming: An International History, W. Lockeretz, Ed. 2007, pp. 175–186.
E. Fouilleux and A. Loconto, “Voluntary standards, certification, and accreditation in the global organic agriculture field: a tripartite model of techno-politics,” Agric Human Values, vol. 34, no. 1, 2017, doi: 10.1007/s10460-016-9686-3.
R. Home, H. Bouagnimbeck, R. Ugas, M. Arbenz, and M. Stolze, “Participatory guarantee systems: organic certification to empower farmers and strengthen communities,” Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems, vol. 41, no. 5, pp. 526–545, May 2017, doi: 10.1080/21683565.2017.1279702.
M. Cuéllar-Padilla and E. Ganuza-Fernandez, “We Don’t Want to Be Officially Certified! Reasons and Implications of the Participatory Guarantee Systems,” Sustainability, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 1142, Apr. 2018, doi: 10.3390/su10041142.
S. Kaufmann, N. Hruschka, and C. R. Vogl, “Bridging the Literature Gap: A Framework for Assessing Actor Participation in Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS),” Sustainability, vol. 12, no. 19, p. 8100, Oct. 2020, doi: 10.3390/su12198100.
H. Ummyiah, N. Sumati, K. Pradeep, N. Ambreen, A. Malik, and M. Mudasir, “Export of organic products: Opportunities and challenges,” J Pharmacogn Phytochem, vol. 6, no. 6, 2017.
F. Casino et al., “Blockchain-based food supply chain traceability: a case study in the dairy sector,” Int J Prod Res, 2020, doi: 10.1080/00207543.2020.1789238.
R. Kamath, “Food Traceability on Blockchain: Walmart’s Pork and Mango Pilots with IBM,” The Journal of the British Blockchain Association, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1–12, Jul. 2018, doi: 10.31585/jbba-1-1-(10)2018.
G. Baralla, S. Ibba, M. Marchesi, R. Tonelli, and S. Missineo, “A Blockchain Based System to Ensure Transparency and Reliability in Food Supply Chain,” 2019, pp. 379–391. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-10549-5_30.
M. M. Jalalzai, C. Busch, and G. G. Richard, “Proteus: A scalable BFT consensus protocol for blockchains,” in Proceedings - 2019 2nd IEEE International Conference on Blockchain, Blockchain 2019, 2019. doi: 10.1109/Blockchain.2019.00048.
S. S. Panda, B. K. Mohanta, U. Satapathy, D. Jena, D. Gountia, and T. K. Patra, “Study of Blockchain Based Decentralized Consensus Algorithms,” in TENCON 2019 - 2019 IEEE Region 10 Conference (TENCON), Oct. 2019, pp. 908–913. doi: 10.1109/TENCON.2019.8929439.
S. Joshi, “Feasibility of Proof of Authority as a Consensus Protocol Model,” Aug. 2021.
J. Innerbichler and V. Damjanovic-Behrendt, “Federated Byzantine Agreement to Ensure Trustworthiness of Digital Manufacturing Platforms,” in Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Cryptocurrencies and Blockchains for Distributed Systems, Jun. 2018, pp. 111–116. doi: 10.1145/3211933.3211953.
K. H. Lee, “Linking stakeholders and corporate reputation towards corporate sustainability,” International Journal of Innovation and Sustainable Development, vol. 6, no. 2, p. 219, 2012, doi: 10.1504/IJISD.2012.046947.
C. Costa, F. Antonucci, F. Pallottino, J. Aguzzi, D. Sarriá, and P. Menesatti, “A Review on Agri-food Supply Chain Traceability by Means of RFID Technology,” Food Bioproc Tech, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 353–366, Feb. 2013, doi: 10.1007/s11947-012-0958-7.
A. Regattieri, M. Gamberi, and R. Manzini, “Traceability of food products: General framework and experimental evidence,” J Food Eng, vol. 81, no. 2, 2007, doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2006.10.032.
J. Zhang, L. Liu, W. Mu, L. M. Moga, and X. Zhang, “Development of temperature-managed traceability system for frozen and chilled food during storage and transportation,” J Food Agric Environ, vol. 7, no. 3–4, 2009.
R. Jedermann, C. Behrens, D. Westphal, and W. Lang, “Applying autonomous sensor systems in logistics—Combining sensor networks, RFIDs and software agents,” Sens Actuators A Phys, vol. 132, no. 1, pp. 370–375, Nov. 2006, doi: 10.1016/j.sna.2006.02.008.
M. Thakur and C. R. Hurburgh, “Framework for implementing traceability system in the bulk grain supply chain,” J Food Eng, vol. 95, no. 4, 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2009.06.028.
L. Ruiz-Garcia, G. Steinberger, and M. Rothmund, “A model and prototype implementation for tracking and tracing agricultural batch products along the food chain,” Food Control, vol. 21, no. 2, 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2008.12.003.
A. Kakkar and Ruchi, “A blockchain technology solution to enhance operational efficiency of rice supply chain for food corporation of India,” in Lecture Notes on Data Engineering and Communications Technologies, vol. 39, 2020. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-34515-0_3.
K. Salah, N. Nizamuddin, R. Jayaraman, and M. Omar, “Blockchain-Based Soybean Traceability in Agricultural Supply Chain,” IEEE Access, vol. 7, pp. 73295–73305, 2019, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2918000.
J. D. Borrero, “Agri-food supply chain traceability for fruit and vegetable cooperatives using Blockchain technology,” CIRIEC-Espana Revista de Economia Publica, Social y Cooperativa, no. 95, 2019, doi: 10.7203/CIRIEC-E.95.13123.
R. Kamath, “Food Traceability on Blockchain: Walmart’s Pork and Mango Pilots with IBM,” The Journal of the British Blockchain Association, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1–12, Jul. 2018, doi: 10.31585/jbba-1-1-(10)2018.
J. F. Galvez, J. C. Mejuto, and J. Simal-Gandara, “Future challenges on the use of blockchain for food traceability analysis,” TrAC - Trends in Analytical Chemistry, vol. 107. 2018. doi: 10.1016/j.trac.2018.08.011.
H. F. Atlam, A. Alenezi, M. O. Alassafi, and G. B. Wills, “Blockchain with Internet of Things: Benefits, challenges, and future directions,” International Journal of Intelligent Systems and Applications, vol. 10, no. 6, 2018, doi: 10.5815/ijisa.2018.06.05.
M. A. Khan and K. Salah, “IoT security: Review, blockchain solutions, and open challenges,” Future Generation Computer Systems, vol. 82, 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.future.2017.11.022.
M. L. Marsal-Llacuna, “Future living framework: Is blockchain the next enabling network?,” Technol Forecast Soc Change, vol. 128, 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.techfore.2017.12.005.
L. M. Bach, B. Mihaljevic, and M. Zagar, “Comparative analysis of blockchain consensus algorithms,” in 2018 41st International Convention on Information and Communication Technology, Electronics and Microelectronics, MIPRO 2018 - Proceedings, 2018. doi: 10.23919/MIPRO.2018.8400278.
N. Chaudhry and M. M. Yousaf, “Consensus Algorithms in Blockchain: Comparative Analysis, Challenges and Opportunities,” in ICOSST 2018 - 2018 International Conference on Open Source Systems and Technologies, Proceedings, 2019. doi: 10.1109/ICOSST.2018.8632190.
B. Lashkari and P. Musilek, “A Comprehensive Review of Blockchain Consensus Mechanisms,” IEEE Access, vol. 9. 2021. doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3065880.
D. Mingxiao, M. Xiaofeng, Z. Zhe, W. Xiangwei, and C. Qijun, “A review on consensus algorithm of blockchain,” in 2017 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC), Oct. 2017, pp. 2567–2572. doi: 10.1109/SMC.2017.8123011.
L. Ismail and H. Materwala, “A review of blockchain architecture and consensus protocols: Use cases, challenges, and solutions,” Symmetry (Basel), vol. 11, no. 10, 2019, doi: 10.3390/sym11101198.
T. Thanujan, C. Rajapakse, and D. Wickramaarachchi, “A Review of Blockchain Consensus Mechanisms: State of the Art and Performance Measures,” in 13TH INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH CONFERENCE HOLISTIC APPROACH TO NATIONAL GROWTH AND SECURITY, Oct. 2020, pp. 315–326.
Y. Wu, P. Song, and F. Wang, “Hybrid Consensus Algorithm Optimization: A Mathematical Method Based on POS and PBFT and Its Application in Blockchain,” Math Probl Eng, vol. 2020, 2020, doi: 10.1155/2020/7270624.
Y. Pan, W. Wei, Y. Liu, and C. Zhu, “Hybrid consensus algorithm based on hierarchy authority,” in 2021 IEEE International Conference on Electronic Technology, Communication and Information, ICETCI 2021, 2021. doi: 10.1109/ICETCI53161.2021.9563559.
“Analysis between Dash, Zcash, Ripple (XRP) and BRAVO Pay.” Accessed: Nov. 12, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://pdf4pro.com/amp/view/bravo-whitepaper-v1-bvo-trybravo-com-3e2187.html
Y. Abuidris, R. Kumar, T. Yang, and J. Onginjo, “Secure large-scale E-voting system based on blockchain contract using a hybrid consensus model combined with sharding,” ETRI Journal, vol. 43, no. 2, 2021, doi: 10.4218/etrij.2019-0362.
S. A. Pranesh, V. Vignesh Kannan, N. Viswanathan, and M. Vijayalakshmi, “Design and Analysis of Incentive Mechanism for Ethereum-based Supply Chain Management Systems,” in 2020 11th International Conference on Computing, Communication and Networking Technologies, ICCCNT 2020, 2020. doi: 10.1109/ICCCNT49239.2020.9225602.
Y. He, H. Li, X. Cheng, Y. Liu, C. Yang, and L. Sun, “A Blockchain Based Truthful Incentive Mechanism for Distributed P2P Applications,” IEEE Access, vol. 6, 2018, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2821705.
S. Xuan et al., “An incentive mechanism for data sharing based on blockchain with smart contracts,” Computers and Electrical Engineering, vol. 83, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.compeleceng.2020.106587.
C. Huang et al., “RepChain: A Reputation-Based Secure, Fast, and High Incentive Blockchain System via Sharding,” IEEE Internet Things J, vol. 8, no. 6, 2021, doi: 10.1109/JIOT.2020.3028449.
J. vom Brocke, A. Hevner, and A. Maedche, “Introduction to Design Science Research,” 2020. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-46781-4_1.
T. Thanujan, C. Rajapakse, and D. Wickramaarachchi, “A community-based hybrid blockchain architecture for the organic food supply chain,” in Proceedings - International Research Conference on Smart Computing and Systems Engineering, SCSE 2021, 2021. doi: 10.1109/SCSE53661.2021.9568325.
L. H. Essoussi and M. Zahaf, “Decision making process of community organic food consumers: An exploratory study,” Journal of Consumer Marketing, vol. 25, no. 2, 2008, doi: 10.1108/07363760810858837.
B. Academy, “Proof of Authority Explained,” Binance Academy, 2020.
S. Kaur, S. Chaturvedi, A. Sharma, and J. Kar, “A Research Survey on Applications of Consensus Protocols in Blockchain,” Security and Communication Networks, vol. 2021. 2021. doi: 10.1155/2021/6693731.
“Methods for securing spacecraft tasking and control via an enterprise Ethereum blockchain,” in Advances in Communications Satellite Systems: Proceedings of the 37th International Communications Satellite Systems Conference (ICSSC-2019), 2021. doi: 10.1049/pbte095e_ch53.
J. MAGAS, “Proof-of-Authority Algorithm Use Cases Grow: From Pharma to Games,” 2019. https://cointelegraph.com/news/proof-of-authority-algorithm-use-cases-grow-from-pharma-to-games (accessed Nov. 12, 2022).
L. Lamport, R. Shostak, and M. Pease, “The Byzantine Generals Problem,” ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems (TOPLAS), vol. 4, no. 3, 1982, doi: 10.1145/357172.357176.
Ł. Lachowski, “Complexity of the quorum intersection property of the Federated Byzantine Agreement System,” Feb. 2019.
D. Mazieres, “The Stellar Consensus Protocol - A Federated Model for internet-level consensus,” Stellar Development foundation, vol. 120, no. 42, 2015.
A. Zoi, “Study of consensus protocols and improvement of the Federated Byzantine Agreement (FBA) algorithm.” Accessed: Nov. 12, 2022. [Online]. Available: http://hdl.handle.net/2117/176420
K. L. Marsh, M. J. Richardson, and R. C. Schmidt, “Social Connection Through Joint Action and Interpersonal Coordination,” Top Cogn Sci, vol. 1, no. 2, 2009, doi: 10.1111/j.1756-8765.2009.01022.x.
N. Emler, “A social psychology of reputation,” Eur Rev Soc Psychol, vol. 1, no. 1, 1990, doi: 10.1080/14792779108401861.
L. Rui, P. Zhang, H. Huang, and X. Qiu, “Reputation-based incentive mechanisms in crowdsourcing,” Dianzi Yu Xinxi Xuebao/Journal of Electronics and Information Technology, vol. 38, no. 7, 2016, doi: 10.11999/JEIT151095.
J. Gerdes, B. B. Stringam, and R. G. Brookshire, “An integrative approach to assess qualitative and quantitative consumer feedback,” Electronic Commerce Research, vol. 8, no. 4, 2008, doi: 10.1007/s10660-008-9022-0.
K. Weigelt and C. Camerer, “Reputation and corporate strategy: A review of recent theory and applications,” Strategic Management Journal, vol. 9, no. 5, 1988, doi: 10.1002/smj.4250090505.
G. L. Rein, “Reputation information systems: A reference model,” in Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2005. doi: 10.1109/hicss.2005.519.
F. K. Hussain, O. K. Hussain, and E. Chang, “An overview of the interpretations of trust and reputation,” in IEEE International Conference on Emerging Technologies and Factory Automation, ETFA, 2007. doi: 10.1109/EFTA.2007.4416865.
L. Nasr, J. Burton, T. Gruber, and J. Kitshoff, “Exploring the impact of customer feedback on the well-being of service entities ATSR perspective,” Journal of Service Management, vol. 25, no. 4, 2014, doi: 10.1108/JOSM-01-2014-0022.
J. Yang, X. Hu, and H. Zhang, “Effects of a reputation feedback system on an online consumer-to-consumer auction market,” Decis Support Syst, vol. 44, no. 1, 2007, doi: 10.1016/j.dss.2007.03.005.
P. Y. Chen, J. Yoon, and S. Y. Wu, “THE IMPACT OF ONLINE RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONSUMER FEEDBACK ON SALES,” in Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Systems, ICIS 2004, 2004.
R. Axelrod, “Chapter 33 Agent-based Modeling as a Bridge Between Disciplines,” Handbook of Computational Economics, vol. 2. 2006. doi: 10.1016/S1574-0021(05)02033-2.
Copyright (c) 2022 Journal of Innovation Information Technology and Application (JINITA)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
